The mechanical properties of fiber are given below:
· Compressive strength
· Ductility
· Fatigue limit
· Flexural modulus
· Flexural strength
· Fracture toughness
· Hardness
· Poisson's ratio
· Shear modulus
· Shear strength
· Softness
· Specific modulus
· Specific weight
· Ultimate Tensile strength
· Yield strength
· Young's modulus
Compressive Strength By definition, the compressive strength of a material is that value of uniaxial compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test. The apparatus used for this experiment is the same as that used in a tensile test. However, rather than applying a uniaxial tensile load, a uniaxial compressive load is applied. As can be imagined, the specimen (usually cylindrical) is shortened as well as spread laterally. A Stress–strain curve is plotted by the instrument and would look similar to the following:
Engineering Stress-Strain curve for a typical specimen
The compressive strength of the material would correspond to the stress at the red point shown on the curve. Even in a compression test, there is a linear region where the material follows Hooke's Law. Hence for this region σ = Eε where this time E refers to the Young's Modulus for compression.This linear region terminates at what is known as the yield point. Above this point the material behaves plastically and will not return to its original length once the load is removed.
There is a difference between the engineering stress and the true stress. By its basic definition the uniaxial stress is given by:
Where, F = Load applied [N], A = Area [m2]
As stated, the area of the specimen varies on compression. In reality therefore the area is some function of the applied load i.e. A = f (F). Indeed, stress is defined as the force divided by the area at the start of the experiment. This is known as the engineering stress and is defined by,
A0=Original specimen area [m2]
Correspondingly, the engineering strain would be defined by:
Where l = current specimen length [m] and l0 = original specimen length [m]
The compressive stress would therefore correspond to the point on the engineering stress strain curve.
Where F* = load applied just before crushing and l* = specimen length just before crushing.
Ductility
In materials science, ductility specifically refers to a material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar concept, refers to a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Ductility and malleability do not always correlate with each other; for instance, gold is both ductile and malleable, but lead is only malleable. Commonly, the term "ductility" is used to refer to both concepts, as they are very similar.
Fatigue limit
Representative curves of applied stress vs number of cycles for steel (in blue and showing an endurance limit) and aluminium (in red and showing no such limit).
Fatigue limit, endurance limit, and fatigue strength are all expressions used to describe a property of materials: the amplitude (or range) of cyclic stress that can be applied to the material without causing fatigue failure. The concept of endurance limit was introduced in 1870 by August Wöhler. However, recent research suggests that endurance limits do not actually exist, that if enough stress cycles are performed, even the smallest stress will eventually produce fatigue failure.
Flexural modulus
In mechanics, the flexural modulus is the ratio of stress to strain in flexural deformation, or the tendency for a material to bend. It is determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve produced by a flexural test and uses units of force per area. It is an intensive property.Flexural modulus:
Flexural strength
Flexural strength, also known as modulus of rupture, bend strength, or fracture strength, a mechanical parameter for brittle material, is defined as a material's ability to resist deformation under load. The transverse bending test is most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross-section is bent until fracture using a three point flexural test technique. The flexural strength represents the highest stress experienced within the material at its moment of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress, here given the symbol σ.Measuring flexural strength
Fig. 3 - Beam under 3 point bending
For a rectangular sample under a load in a three-point bending setup (Fig. 3):
- F is the load (force) at the fracture point
- L is the length of the support span
- b is width
- d is thickness
- F is the load (force) at the fracture point
- L is the length of the support (outer) span
- b is width
- d is thickness
If the loading span is neither 1/3 or 1/2 the support span for the 4 pt bend setup (Fig. 4):
Fig. 4 - Beam under 4 point bending
Li is the length of the loading (inner) span
Fracture toughness
In materials science, fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability of a material containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important properties of any material for virtually all design applications. It is denoted KIc and has the units of
.The subscript Ic denotes mode I crack opening under a normal tensile stress perpendicular to the crack, since the material can be made deep enough to stand shear (mode II) or tear (mode III).
Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance to brittle fracture when a crack is present. If a material has much fracture toughness it will probably undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of materials with less fracture toughness.
Fracture mechanics, which leads to the concept of fracture toughness, was broadly based on the work of A. A. Griffith who, among other things, studied the behavior of cracks in brittle materials.
A related concept is the work of fracture (γwof) which is directly proportional to
, where E is the Young's modulus of the material. Note that, in SI units, γwof is given in J/m2.Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a force is applied. Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, however the behavior of solid materials under force is complex, therefore there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.
Hardness is dependent on ductility, elasticity, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and super hard materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter.
Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio (ν), named after Simeon Poisson, is the ratio, when a sample object is stretched, of the contraction or transverse strain (perpendicular to the applied load), to the extension or axial strain (in the direction of the applied load).
When a material is compressed in one direction, it usually tends to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect. Poisson's ratio ν (nu) is a measure of the Poisson effect. The Poisson ratio is the ratio of the fraction (or percent) of expansion divided by the fraction (or percent) of compression, for small values of these changes.Conversely, if the material is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in the directions transverse to the direction of stretching. Again, the Poisson ratio will be the ratio of relative contraction to relative stretching, and will have the same value as above. In certain rare cases, a material will actually shrink in the transverse direction when compressed (or expand when stretched) which will yield a negative value of the Poisson ratio.
Negative Poisson's ratio materials
Some materials known as auxetic materials display a negative Poisson’s ratio. When subjected to positive strain in a longitudinal axis, the transverse strain in the material will actually be positive (i.e. it would increase the cross sectional area). For these materials, it is usually due to uniquely oriented, hinged molecular bonds. In order for these bonds to stretch in the longitudinal direction, the hinges must ‘open’ in the transverse direction, effectively exhibiting a positive strain.Shear modulus
Shear modulus | |
SI symbol: | G |
Derivations from other quantities: | |
Shear strain
In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted by G, or sometimes S or μ, is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain:[1]
= shear stress;F is the force which acts
A is the area on which the force acts
= shear strain;Δx is the transverse displacement
I is the initial length
Shear modulus is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi).Shear strength
Shear ForceA shear load is a force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the force. It is denoted by Fs. When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shear. Shear Stress The shear force per unit area of the section over which it acts, is called the shear stress or shearing stress and is denoted by. Mathematically, shear stress = Unit for shear stress- N/m2 or N/mm2 or Pascal (Pa), 1 K Pa = 1000 Pascals
Shear strength in engineering is a term used to describe the strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure where the material or component fails in shear.
For shear stress τ applies
Softness
Softness may refer to:Specific modulus
Specific modulus is a materials property consisting of the elastic modulus per mass density of a material. It is also known as the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness. High specific modulus materials find wide application in aerospace applications where minimum structural weight is required. The dimensional analysis yields units of distance squared per time squared.Specific modulus is not to be confused with specific strength, a term that compares strength to density.
Specific weight
The specific weight (also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of a material. The symbol of specific weight is γ (the Greek letter Gamma).A commonly used value is the specific weight of water on Earth at 5°C which is 62.43 lbf/ft3 or 9807 N/m3. [1]
The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density.
General formula
Ultimate tensile strength
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different.The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material.
Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. In the SI system, the unit is pascal (Pa) or, equivalently, newtons per square meter (N/m²). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in² or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used for convenience when measuring tensile strengths.
Yield strength
The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible.Young's modulus
In solid mechanics, Young's modulus, also known as the tensile modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an isotropic elastic material. It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain in the range of stress in which Hooke's Law holds. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. It is also commonly, but incorrectly, called the elastic modulus or modulus of elasticity, because Young's modulus is the most common elastic modulus used, but there are other elastic moduli measured, too, such as the bulk modulus and the shear modulus.Young's modulus is the ratio of stress, which has units of pressure, to strain, which is dimensionless; therefore, Young's modulus has units of pressure.
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity (E, or less commonly Y) is the pascal (Pa or N/m²). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm²) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm²). In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force) per square inch (psi).
Calculation
Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain:
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
F is the force applied to the object;
A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied;
ΔL is the amount by which the length of the object changes;
L0 is the original length of the object.
Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyesters include naturally-occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polycarbonate and polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not.
Polyethylene terephthalate
Depending on the chemical structure polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset, however the most common polyesters are thermoplastics.
Fabrics woven from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets and upholstered furniture. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in tyre reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding.
While synthetic clothing in general is perceived by many as having a less-natural feel compared to fabrics woven from natural fibres (such as cotton and wool), polyester fabrics can provide specific advantages over natural fabrics, such as improved wrinkle resistance, durability and high color retention. As a
Polyesters are also used to make "plastic" bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes.
Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially-used liquid crystal polymers. They are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are also important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines.
Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Burns Guitars, Rolls Royce and Sunseeker are a few companies that use polyesters to finish their products. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES POLYESTER FIBER
The fiber fineness has been measured on the apparatus Vibroscope (Lenzing). On the same samples the stress strain curves were evaluated by using the apparatus Vibrodyne (Lenzing). The ten various fibers have been tested. For characterization of tensile mechanical behavior the following characteristics were evaluated:
P Tenacity [cN/dtex] as load at break,
E Elongation [%] as deformation at break
IM Initial modulus [cN/dtex] as modulus at 10% deformation
SM [cN/dtex] secant modulus as 100*P/E
WT [cN/dtex] toughness as P*E/50
Py [cN/dtex] yield point stress as stress in point with maximal curvature on stress strain curve
εy [%] yield elongation as deformation in point with maximal curvature on stress strain curve
εp [%] plateau elongation as deformation corresponding the plateau in post yield region .
Results of fineness and mechanical measurements are given in the table I. and table II. In brackets are given coefficient of variation CV [%]. These coefficients show relatively high variability of measured characteristics mainly due to variability of geometrical characteristics of fibers (variation of titer). Very high variability has the elongation at break. This variability partially hides the influence of PEN on the mechanical characteristics
.
Table I. Stress strain curve parameters
Sample | Titer [dtex] | Tenacity [cN/dtex] | Elongation [%] | Modulus 10% [cN/dtex] | Toughness WT [cN/dtex] |
A | 6.09 [7.2] | 26.7 [10.5] | 107.8 [18.2] | 96.4 [13.8] | 14.39 |
B | 6.84 [12.5] | 24.6 [8.1] | 93.7 [18.6] | 87.4 [9.4] | 11.52 |
C | 6.74 [20.4] | 30.2 [15.7] | 64.2 [29.8] | 98.6 [14.3] | 9.69 |
D | 6.58 [16.9] | 28.6 [12.5] | 52.9 [39.7] | 95.7 [10.3] | 7.56 |
E | 8.54 [19.4] | 24.2 [12.7] | 64.1 [46.3] | 77.5 [11] | 7.75 |
Table II. Parameters in yield point vicinity
Sample | Yield point stress Py [cN/dtex] | Yield elongation εy [%] | Plateau elongation εp [%] | Secant modulus [cN/dtex] |
A | 7.9 | 4.1 | 0.1 | 24.95 |
B | 8.2 | 4.87 | 3.1 | 26.64 |
C | 8.9 | 5 | 6.2 | 47.04 |
D | 9.1 | 5.1 | 12.1 | 54.06 |
E | 7.5 | 4.5 | 14.2 | 37.75 |
Based on these results, the following conclusions can be formulated:
1. Stress strain curves are sensitive on the PEN content. Increasing of PEN content leads to the marked appearance of yield point and wider post yield plateau εp (deformation softening region). It is known that εp characterize deterioration of recovery power.
2. Toughness and elongation at break of fibers are decreasing function of PEN content
3. Secant modulus, yield point stress and tenacity are increasing function of PEN content (excluding sample E with higher titer)
The PEN presence therefore acts as reinforcing of chains, and increase ultimate mechanical properties. On the other hand, the standard comonomers addition leads to decreasing of mechanical properties. The post yield region exhibition is in accordance with slipping motion of naphthalene chains (necking formation).
Carbon Fiber
Carbon fiber (carbon fiber), alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material consisting of extremely thin fibers about 0.005–0.010 mm in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber. The crystal alignment makes the fiber very strong for its size. Several thousand carbon fibers are twisted together to form a yarn, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric. Carbon fiber has many different weave patterns and can be combined with a plastic resin and wound or molded to form composite materials such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic (also referenced as carbon fiber) to provide a high strength-to-weight ratio material. The density of carbon fiber is also considerably lower than the density of steel, making it ideal for applications requiring low weight. The properties of carbon fiber such as high tensile strength, low weight, and low thermal expansion make it very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, it is relatively expensive when compared to similar materials such as fiberglass or plastic. Carbon fiber is very strong when stretched or bent, but weak when compressed or exposed to high shock (e.g. a carbon fiber bar is extremely difficult to bend, but will crack easily if hit with a hammer).
Structure and properties
A 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) compared to a human hair.
Each carbon filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. A single such filament is a thin tube with a diameter of 5–8 micrometers and consists almost exclusively of carbon. The earliest generation of carbon fibers (i.e., T300, and AS4) had diameters of 7-8 micrometers. Later fibers (i.e., IM6) have diameters that are approximately 5 micrometers.The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of carbon atoms (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. The difference lies in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics. Depending upon the precursor to make the fiber, carbon fiber may be turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with both graphitic and turbostratic parts present. In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived from Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic, whereas carbon fibers derived from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at temperatures exceeding 2200 C. Turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high tensile strength, whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers have high Young's modulus and high thermal conductivity.
Fibers @ 0° (UD), 0/90° (fabric) to loading axis, Dry, Room Temperature, Vf = 60% (UD), 50% (fabric)
Symbol | Units | Std CF Fabric | HMCF Fabric | E glass Fabric | Kevlar Fabric | Std CF UD | HMCF UD | M55** UD | E glass UD | Kevlar UD | Boron UD | Steel S97 | Al. L65 | Tit. dtd 5173 | |
Young’s Modulus 0° | E1 | GPa | 70 | 85 | 25 | 30 | 135 | 175 | 300 | 40 | 75 | 200 | 207 | 72 | 110 |
Young’s Modulus 90° | E2 | GPa | 70 | 85 | 25 | 30 | 10 | 8 | 12 | 8 | 6 | 15 | 207 | 72 | 110 |
In-plane Shear Modulus | G12 | GPa | 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 80 | 25 | |
Major Poisson’s Ratio | v12 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.34 | 0.23 | ||||
Ult. Tensile Strength 0° | Xt | MPa | 600 | 350 | 440 | 480 | 1500 | 1000 | 1600 | 1000 | 1300 | 1400 | 990 | 460 | |
Ult. Comp. Strength 0° | Xc | MPa | 570 | 150 | 425 | 190 | 1200 | 850 | 1300 | 600 | 280 | 2800 | |||
Ult. Tensile Strength 90° | Yt | MPa | 600 | 350 | 440 | 480 | 50 | 40 | 50 | 30 | 30 | 90 | |||
Ult. Comp. Strength 90° | Yc | MPa | 570 | 150 | 425 | 190 | 250 | 200 | 250 | 110 | 140 | 280 | |||
Ult. In-plane Shear Stren. | S | MPa | 90 | 35 | 40 | 50 | 70 | 60 | 75 | 40 | 60 | 140 | |||
Ult. Tensile Strain 0° | ext | % | 0.85 | 0.40 | 1.75 | 1.60 | 1.05 | 0.55 | 2.50 | 1.70 | 0.70 | ||||
Ult. Comp. Strain 0° | exc | % | 0.80 | 0.15 | 1.70 | 0.60 | 0.85 | 0.45 | 1.50 | 0.35 | 1.40 | ||||
Ult. Tensile Strain 90° | eyt | % | 0.85 | 0.40 | 1.75 | 1.60 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 0.60 | ||||
Ult. Comp. Strain 90° | eyc | % | 0.80 | 0.15 | 1.70 | 0.60 | 2.50 | 2.50 | 1.35 | 2.30 | 1.85 | ||||
Ult. In-plane shear strain | es | % | 1.80 | 0.70 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.40 | 1.20 | 1.00 | 3.00 | 2.80 | ||||
Thermal Exp. Co-ef. 0° | Alpha1 | Strain/K | 2.10 | 1.10 | 11.60 | 7.40 | -0.30 | -0.30 | -0.30 | 6.00 | 4.00 | 18.00 | |||
Thermal Exp. Co-ef. 90° | Alpha2 | Strain/K | 2.10 | 1.10 | 11.60 | 7.40 | 28.00 | 25.00 | 28.00 | 35.00 | 40.00 | 40.00 | |||
Moisture Exp. Co-ef 0° | Beta1 | Strain/K | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | ||||
Moisture Exp. Co-ef 90° | Beta2 | Strain/K | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | ||||
Density | g/cc | 1.60 | 1.60 | 1.90 | 1.40 | 1.60 | 1.60 | 1.65 | 1.90 | 1.40 | 2.00 |
** Calculated figures
Fibers @ +/-45 Deg. to loading axis, Dry, Room Temperature, Vf = 60% (UD), 50% (fabric)
Fibers @ +/-45 Deg. to loading axis, Dry, Room Temperature, Vf = 60% (UD), 50% (fabric)
Symbol | Units | Std. CF | HM CF | E Glass | Std. CF fabric | E Glass fabric | Steel | Al | |
Longitudinal Modulus | E1 | GPa | 17 | 17 | 12.3 | 19.1 | 12.2 | 207 | 72 |
Transverse Modulus | E2 | GPa | 17 | 17 | 12.3 | 19.1 | 12.2 | 207 | 72 |
In Plane Shear Modulus | G12 | GPa | 33 | 47 | 11 | 30 | 8 | 80 | 25 |
Poisson’s Ratio | v12 | .77 | .83 | .53 | .74 | .53 | |||
Tensile Strength | Xt | MPa | 110 | 110 | 90 | 120 | 120 | 990 | 460 |
Compressive Strength | Xc | MPa | 110 | 110 | 90 | 120 | 120 | 990 | 460 |
In Plane Shear Strength | S | MPa | 260 | 210 | 100 | 310 | 150 | ||
Thermal Expansion Co-ef | Alpha1 | Strain/K | 2.15 E-6 | 0.9 E-6 | 12 E-6 | 4.9 E-6 | 10 E-6 | 11 E-6 | 23 E-6 |
Moisture Co-ef | Beta1 | Strain/K | 3.22 E-4 | 2.49 E-4 | 6.9 E-4 |
** Calculated figures
These tables are for reference / information only and are NOT a guarantee of performance
1 GPa = 1000 MPa = 1000 N/mm² = 145,000 PSI
These tables relate to only 2 of the many fiber orientations possible. Most components are made using combinations of the above materials and with the fiber orientations being dictated by the performance requirements of the product. Performance Composites Ltd. can assist with the design of components where appropriate.
These tables are for reference / information only and are NOT a guarantee of performance
1 GPa = 1000 MPa = 1000 N/mm² = 145,000 PSI
These tables relate to only 2 of the many fiber orientations possible. Most components are made using combinations of the above materials and with the fiber orientations being dictated by the performance requirements of the product. Performance Composites Ltd. can assist with the design of components where appropriate.
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